this post was submitted on 21 Aug 2023
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By checking whether the bootloader is unlocked or not. If the bootloader is unlocked, then all bets are off, but if the bootloader is locked, you can only run the original, unmodified firmware. Any alternation to the firmware will result in the dm-verity check failing, causing the system to not boot at all. The only data which can be altered is user data, which is wiped in a factory reset. So a factory ressr definitely gets rid of it.
If you're paranoid though, you could always flash the stock firmware downloaded directly from the manufacturer's website, which will override all system partitions, so you can be absolutely sure there's no spyware - besides the spyware included by Google etc of course, or the spyware embedded into the hardware by the chip manufacturers...
None of this will save you. The boot loader can be replaced with one that merely pretends to be locked and merely pretends to flash the replacement operating system it's sent over the USB port.
If the phone has ever been in the custody of someone you don't trust, you can't trust anything about it.