It looks like the Quadro P600's displayports should support that resolution at that refresh rate. What driver stack are you running on your system?
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Oops. It's a quadro 600, not p600. My bad. Using nvidia 390 driver.
It makes more sense now why you can't get to 144hz.
Displayport 1.2 seems to be able to go up to 1440p@144hz when it's 8bit color. This basically means any graphics card after 2010. You could probably pick up a cheap R7 450 or FirePro W4100 secondhand. Just make sure that the Nvidia drivers are removed and you're running open source drivers before swapping. Afterwards, amdgpu is generally the best driver for the aforementioned GPUs.
If you need more than that then you'll need a graphics card at least as new as the GTX 10 series or Radeon RX 400 series.
Not an answer to your question, but doesn't AMD usually perform better with Linux systems?
Not sure - But I'd definitely be game to run an AMD card if it fits my use case!